Fundamentals, present status and future perspective of TOPCon solar cells: A comprehensive review
Keywords
1. Introduction
Fig. 1. Global market share for different cell technologies [19].
Fig. 2. Global market share of PERC/PERL/PERT and TOPCon solar cells [19].
2. Evolution of TOPCon solar cell and its importance in PV industries
- Step 1: Selection of shiny-etched 200 μm, <100> oriented, 1 Ω-cm n-type FZ Si wafers (2 cm × 2 cm)
- Step 2: Cleaning of wafers by standard RCA process
- Step 3: Diffusion of boron into random pyramid textured front side
- Step 4: Deposition of 1.4 nm SiOx layer (wet chemical process) and subsequent 20 nm phosphorous doped amorphous Si layer (PECVD process) at the rear side
- Step 5: High temperature annealing (optimized annealing temperature 850°C) in N2 atmosphere
- Step 6: Deposition of ALD coated Al2O3 layer and PECVD coated SiNx layer onto front p+ emitter
- Step 7: Front side metallization by thermally evaporated Ti/Pd/Ag seed layer (finger width: 20 μm) and subsequent electroplating of Ag layer
- Step 8: Rear side metallization by thermally evaporated Ti/Pd/Ag layer
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) solar cell [20].
Fig. 4. Band diagram of different passivated contact technologies: (a) a-Si/c-Si heterojunction, (b) poly silicon with tunnel oxide, and (c) TOPCon [21].
3. Both sided TOPCon structure based on p-type c-Si wafers
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of both-sided TOPCon solar cell based on p-type c-Si wafer [26].
Fig. 6. External and internal quantum efficiency of the champion cells featuring an amorphous emitter and partially crystallized emitter, respectively. In addition, the 1-R curves representing the upper limit for the EQE are also given [26].
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of both-sided TOPCon solar cell based on n-type c-Si wafer [28].
Fig. 8. TEM images of (a) (p) a-Si:H/SiOx on polished surface as deposited, (b) (p) poly-Si/SiOx on polished surface after high-T annealing. Diffraction patterns of (c) the (p) poly-Si compared to d) the bulk-Si by nano beam diffraction (NBD). TEM images of (e) (p) poly-Si/SiOx on textured surface after high-T annealing, (f) magnification of (e). (g) Plane view of the textured surface [29].
4. Both sided TOPCon structure based on n-type c-Si wafers
5. TOPCon as rear emitter in p-type Si solar cells
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of (a) standard n-TOPCon solar cell, (b) p-type rear junction TOPCon solar cell with FSF and (c) p-type rear junction TOPCon solar cell without FSF [31].
Fig. 10. (a) Comparison of XPS spectra of different SiOx samples (NAOS-SiOx, PANO-SiOx and Thermal-SiOx) after normalization. The small image as the inset is the energy spectrum comparison of 101eV–105eV after normalization. (b) Fractional fitting (Si 2p 3/2 and Si 2p 1/2, Si1þ, Si2þ, Si3þ and Si4þ) of XPS spectra of different SiOx samples. (c) Comparison of the percentages of four valence configurations of the Si–O bonds in the SiOx films obtained by fitting the Si 2p XPS spectra of the three kinds of SiOx samples [39].
Fig. 11. TEM image of thin silicon oxide layer (d¼1.3nm) (a) before and (b) after annealing, the inhomogeneity in crystallinity almost disappears after the annealing step [42].
Fig. 12. High resolution TEM cross section images of n+ poly-Si/c-Si junctions after junction formation at 1050°C, showing (a) a local variation of the interfacial oxide thickness, and (b) a direct local contact of the lattice of the poly-Si and of the c-Si substrate, possibly indicating pinhole formation. Initial interfacial oxide thickness was 2.4 nm for (a) and 1.7 nm for (b). The J0 values are (a) 10 fA/cm2 and (b) 20 fA/cm2 [6].
Fig. 13. Dark J-V characteristics of n-TOPCon samples annealed at (a) 800°C and (b) 900°C [45].
Fig. 14. Simulated J-V characteristics of (a, b) the GaIn/n-c-Si/SiOx/Al, and (c, d) GaIn/n-c-Si/SiOx/n+-poly-Si/Al structures with different magnitudes of transport possibility through pinholes, where the SiOx thickness is 1.4 nm, similar to what used in the real TOPCon solar cells [59].
6. Advancement of different layers present in TOPCon solar cells
6.1. Ultra-thin SiOx layer
6.1.1. Formation of ultra-thin SiOx layer by different routes and its consequences
6.1.2. Effect of the properties of ultra-thin SiOx layer on the surface passivation quality
6.1.3. Formation of pinholes and its impact on the charge carrier transport mechanisms through ultra-thin SiOx tunneling layer
6.2. Poly-Si layer
6.2.1. Development of doped poly-Si layer
Ion implanted doped poly-Si layer
Other innovative approaches
6.2.2. Protecting the ultra-thin SiOx tunneling layer from damages/blistering during the development of poly-Si layer
Fig. 15. Raman spectra of the Si layer as-deposited and after annealing at 600°C in nitrogen atmosphere for 60 min [75].
Fig. 16. Sequence of plating process used in this work [91].
6.2.3. Variation of thickness and/or doping concentration of doped poly-Si layer
6.3. Post-crystallization treatment
6.4. Metallization and rear side light management
Fig. 17. Contact adhesion of planar and textured samples depending on the surface topography and annealing step [91].
Fig. 18. Investigated cell architectures. On the left: A standard industrial PERC cell as reference. On the right: Two TOPCon upgrade architectures: (I) Full Rear: Full-area rear p-type TOPCon with rear dielectric and local contact openings. (II) Local Front: n-type TOPCON locally aligned to front contacts. (III) Combination of I and II; the texturing of the front surface is not depicted [107].
6.5. Front emitter management
7. Theoretical exploration
Fig. 19. Electrical power losses resulting from the FELA based on the 3D full-area simulations. The losses in the silicon bulk are shown in blue, surface recombination losses in red, current transport losses in green and other losses in gray. The power losses in brackets are given in mW/cm2 which equivalent to an efficiency loss in %abs. [108].
Fig. 20. Optical loss analysis for the 25.8% cell based on measured EQE and reflectance data. The values in brackets are current losses calculated from integration of the AM 1.5 g photon flux density. [108].
Fig. 21. Market share of monofacial and bifacial cell technology [19].
Fig. 22. Schematic diagram of i-TOPCon solar cells fabricated on n-type monocrystalline silicon wafers [120].
Fig. 23. (a) Schematic diagram and (b) the fabrication process sequence of the bifacial TOPCon solar cells [122].
Fig. 24. Expected trend of average stabilized efficiency values for Si solar cells in mass production [19].
8. Large area TOPCon solar cells
- Step 1: Double-sided texturization of wafers in alkaline solution to form the pyramid shape structure.
- Step 2: Diffusion of p+ boron.
- Step 2: Removal of p+ boron from the rear side of the wafers with the help of single-side inline wet bench.
- Step 4: Realization of (thermal oxidation + in-situ i-poly with a thickness value of 200 to 300 nm) by LPCVD method.
- Step 5: Doping of in-situ i-poly layer to convert it into n+ poly layer by POCl3 diffusion.
- Step 6: Removal of wrap around n+ poly-Si layer by single-side etcher, followed by wet chemical cleaning.
- Step 7: Realization of surface passivation of the front boron emitter by using thin film stack.
- Step 8: Development of SiNx:H layer onto rear side n+ poly-Si layer by PECVD technique for surface passivation and capping purpose.
- Step 10: Screen printing and firing to realize the metallic contacts at the front and at the back side of the cells.
9. Technological options for the mass production of TOPCon solar cells
Fig. 25. Expected trend of average stabilized efficiency values for solar modules comprised of various c-Si solar cells [19].
Fig. 26. Expected trend of poly-Si layer formation for TOPCon contacts [19].
Fig. 27. Expected trend of poly-Si layer thickness for TOPCon contacts [19].
Fig. 28. Normalized COO calculated for various a-Si/poly-Si deposition technologies vs the thickness of the deposited layer. Here, two wafers per slot are assumed for LPCVD depositions. PECVD layer deposition is assumed for a batch type tool [127].
Fig. 29. Expected trend of silver consumption per cell for various cell concepts developed onto M6 wafers [19].
Fig. 30. Expected trend for implementation of lead free pastes for different cell technologies [19].
Fig. 31. Free energy loss analysis (FELA) of the record multi-crystalline Si solar cell [139].
Fig. 32. (a) Schematic diagram and (b) process sequence of n-type quasi-mono silicon i-TOPCon bifacial solar cells [141].
Fig. 33. (A) Procedure flow for the fabrication of hybrid solar cell and (B) the schematic of the final cell structure after the fabrication process [142].
Fig. 34. (a) Schematic diagram and (b) simulated structure of GaInP/Si dual-junction solar cell [145].
Table 1. Surface passivation quality of ultra-thin SiOx layer grown by different routes on various types of wafers.
| Type of Fabricated TOPCon Structure | Fabrication route | Wafer type | iVoc (mV) | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| n-TOPCon | Wet chemical oxidation in hot HNO3 atmosphere | n-type, planar FZ | 720 | [34] |
| n-type, textured FZ | 630 | |||
| Oxidation in UV/O3 atmosphere | n-type, planar FZ | 725 | ||
| n-type, textured FZ | 715 | |||
| n-TOPCon | Wet chemical oxidation in hot HNO3 atmosphere | n-type, planar FZ | > 720 | [35] |
| n-type, textured FZ | 635 | |||
| Oxidation in UV/O3 atmosphere | n-type, planar FZ | > 725 | ||
| n-type, textured FZ | > 710 | |||
| Oxidation in DIO3 atmosphere | n-type, planar FZ | > 720 | ||
| n-type, textured FZ | 710 | |||
| n-TOPCon | Wet chemical oxidation in hot HNO3 atmosphere | n-type polished CZ | 706–712 | [37] |
| Oxidation in CNS (Concentrated nitric and sulphuric) acid atmosphere | n-type polished CZ | 714–718 | ||
| n-TOPCon | Wet chemical oxidation in hot HNO3 atmosphere | n-type, solar grade CZ | 727 | [38] |
| Plasma assisted oxidation in N2O atmosphere | n-type, solar grade CZ | 730 (before hydrogenation) 747 (after hydrogenation) | ||
| p-TOPCon | Wet chemical oxidation in hot HNO3 atmosphere | n-type, solar grade CZ | 718 | [39] |
| Plasma assisted oxidation in N2O atmosphere | n-type, solar grade CZ | 703 | ||
| Thermal oxidation in N2 and O2 atmosphere | n-type, solar grade CZ | 722 |
Table 2. Thickness data measured by different methods on one identical sample without thermal annealing [42].
| Method | Thickness average d (nm) | Thickness error (nm) |
|---|---|---|
| TEM | 1.1 | 0.35 |
| Ellipsometry | 1.36 | 0.3 |
| XPS 0○ | 0.61 | 0.15 |
| XPS 70○ | 0.72 | 0.15 |
| ToF-SIMS depth profiling | < 2 | 0.5 |
Table 3. I–V parameters of the developed TOPCon solar cells [43].
| Thickness of SiOx layer (nm) | Nature of result | Voc (mV) | Jsc (mA/cm2) | Rser (mΩ) | FF (%) | Efficiency (%) | Cell area (cm2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1.55 | Median Best | 687.1 689.4 | 39.92 40 | 4.64 4.34 | 81.09 81.35 | 22.25 22.43 | 244.32 |
| 1.43 | Median Best | 680.1 684 | 39.8 39.94 | 5.23 5.22 | 79.94 79.78 | 21.7 21.79 | 244.32 |
| 1.25 | Median Best | 679 682.2 | 39.82 39.91 | 6.18 5.97 | 78.5 78.71 | 21.23 21.43 | 244.32 |
Table 4. Impact of annealing temperature on oxide integrity and surface passivation quality [45].
| Tanneal (°C) | Oxide integrity (qualitative figure of merit) | iVoc (mV) | ρc (mΩ-cm2) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 800 | High | 715.5 | 3.9 ± 0.4 |
| 900 | Medium | 683.3 | 1.7 ± 0.3 |
| 950 | Low, many pinholes | 624.7 | 0.5 ± 0.1 |
Table 5. Influence of ion energy, ion dose and annealing temperature on the passivating quality.
| Features of wafers | Nature of deposited amorphous silicon layers prior to ion-implantation | Implanted material | Ion energy (KeV) | Ion dose (× 1015cm−2) | Annealing temperature (°C) | iVoc (mV) | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n-type FZ | Intrinsic amorphous Si layer | Phosphorous (p+) | 2 | 1 | 800 | 720 | [60] |
| Boron (BF2) | 2 | 5 | 800 | 694 | |||
| n-type FZ | Boron doped amorphous Si layer | Phosphorous | 2 | 7.5 | 800 | > 700 | [61] |
| n-type FZ | Intrinsic amorphous Si layer | Phosphorous | 2 | 1–5 | 800 | 725 | [62] |
| Boron doped amorphous Si layer | Phosphorous | 2 | 7.5 | 800 | 720 | ||
| Intrinsic amorphous Si layer | Boron (B) | 1 | 5 | 800 | 640 | ||
| Intrinsic amorphous Si layer | Boron (BF2) | 2 | 5 | 800 | 690 | ||
| n-type FZ | Intrinsic amorphous Si layer | Phosphorous | 2 | 1 | 850 | 733 | [63] |
| Intrinsic amorphous Si layer | Boron (BF) | 2 | 1 | 850 | 696 |
Table 6. Reported passivation quality of n-TOPCon structure.
| Features of base wafer | Ultra-thin SiOx layer deposition process | Amorphous-Si layer deposition process | Post-crystallization process | Obtained iVoc (mV) | Obtained J0 (fA/cm2) | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n-type FZ, 1 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | PECVD | - | > 710 | 9 | [20] |
| n-type FZ, 1 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | PECVD | RPHP | 720 | 7 | [25] |
| n-type CZ, 1–3 Ω-cm | Concentrated nitric and sulphuric acid oxidation | PECVD | FGA + PECVD SiNx | 724 | 6.9 | [37] |
| p-type CZ, 1–3 Ω-cm | Oxidation in N2O plasma | PECVD | FGA + ALD Al2O3 | 742 | 3 | [32] |
| n-type CZ, 3 Ω-cm | Oxidation in N2O plasma | PECVD | Insertion of AlOx/SiNx capping layer + annealing | 747 | 2 | [38] |
| n-type CZ, 0.5–2 Ω-cm | Thermal oxidation | LPCVD | ALD AlOx + PECVD SiNx | 700 | 18 | [43] |
| n-type CZ, 0.5–2 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | PECVD | Ozone oxidation | 740 | 0.90 | [46] |
| n-type CZ, 0.2–2 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | PECVD | - | 730 | 6 | [59] |
| n-type FZ, 1 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | LPCVD | RPHP | 733 | 4.5 | [63] |
| n-type CZ, 1–3 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | PECVD | ALD Al2O3 | 727 | 4.7 | [66] |
| n-type FZ, 500 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | PECVD | PECVD SiNx | 719 | 5.2 | [72] |
| n-type CZ, 3–5 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | PECVD | Annealing in N2 and water vapor atmosphere | ≈ 730 | 3.8 | [83] |
| n-type CZ, 1–7 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | PECVD | ALD Al2O3 + PECVD SiNx | 747 | 1.9 | [84] |
| n-type CZ, 3.6 Ω-cm | Thermal oxidation | APCVD | AlOx/SiNx | 730 | 6 | [67] |
| n-type FZ, 100 Ω-cm | Thermal oxidation | - | ALD Al2O3 + FGA | - | 0.2 | [88] |
| n-type CZ, 4 Ω-cm | Oxidation in UV/O3 atmosphere | LPCVD | FGA | 743 | 0.5 | [89] |
| n-type CZ, 1–7 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | PECVD* | ALD Al2O3 + thermal treatment | 750 | 1.7 | [78] |
| n-type CZ, 4–5 Ω-cm | Plasma assisted oxidation | PECVD | PECVD SiNx | 730 | 3 | [86] |
| n-type FZ, 1 Ω-cm | Thermal oxidation | PECVD | ALD AlOx + FGA | - | 0.2 ± 0.4 | [87] |
- ⁎
- In this case, doped poly-SiCx layer was used instead of doped poly-Si layer.
Table 7. Reported passivation quality of p-TOPCon structure.
| Features of base wafer | Ultra-thin SiOx layer deposition process | Amorphous-Si layer deposition process | Post-crystallization process | Obtained iVoc (mV) | Obtained J0 (fA/cm2) | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n-type CZ, 3 Ω-cm | Thermal oxidation | PECVD | Annealing in N2 and water vapor atmosphere + ALD AlOx:H | 722 | 5.95 | [39] |
| p-type FZ, 1 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | PECVD | RPHP | 680 | 60 | [60] |
| p-type FZ, 1 Ω-cm | Wet chemical oxidation | LPCVD | RPHP | 696 | 22.0 | [63] |
| n-type CZ, 3.6 Ω-cm | Thermal oxidation | APCVD | AlOx/SiNx | 721 | 6 | [67] |
| n-type CZ, 4 Ω-cm | Oxidation in UV/O3 atmosphere | LPCVD | PECVD SiNx | 734 | 3.8 | [89] |
Table 8. Different large area monofacial TOPCon solar cells.
| Cell area (cm2) | Features of wafer | Nature of the result | Voc (mV) | Jsc (mA/cm2) | FF (%) | Efficiency (%) | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 239 | n-type, 5 Ω-cm, bulk lifetime > 3 ms, CZ | Average Best | 673.6 674 | 39.5 39.6 | 79.1 80.0 | 21.1 21.4 | [111] |
| 239 | n-type, 5 Ω-cm, 200 μm, bulk lifetime > 2 ms, CZ | Average (5 cells) Best | 678.5 ± 4.9 683.4 | 39.46 ± 0.2 39.66 | 78.6 ± 0.5 78.1 | 21.0 ± 0.2 21.2 | [112] |
| 100 | n-type, 1 Ω-cm, FZ | Best | 694 | 40.8 | 81.0 | 22.9 | [113] |
| 100 | n-type, 1 Ω-cm, 200 μm, FZ | Best | 713 | 41.4 | 83.1 | 24.5 | [114] |
| 245.70 | n-type, 4 Ω-cm, CZ | Best | 691.2 | 40.4 | 80.7 | 22.5 | [115] |
| 239 100 | n-type, 2 Ω-cm, 200 μm, CZ | Best Best | 676 682 | 39.7 39.9 | 80.4 80.8 | 21.6 22.0 | [116] |
Table 9. Various large area bifacial TOPCon solar cells.
| Cell area (cm2) | Features of wafer | Nature of the result | Voc (mV) | Jsc (mA/cm2) | FF (%) | Efficiency (%) | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 239 | n-type, 5 Ω-cm, CZ | Best | 675 | 38.8 | 79.1 | 20.72 | [117] |
| 244.3 | n-type, 4–5 Ω-cm, CZ | Best | 696 | 40.5 | 80.9 | 22.8 | [86] |
| 261.47 | n-type, 0.2–2 Ω-cm, CZ | Median (20000 cells) Best (front) Best (rear) | 701.5 716.7 710.8 | 39.84 40.14 32.59 | 82.2 82.0 81.9 | 23.0 23.57 18.98 | [118] |
| 246.21 | n-type CZ | Average (300 cells) Best | 701 703 | 40.66 40.53 | 80.80 81.25 | 23.04 23.15 | [119] |
| 244.32 | n-type, 0.5–1 Ω-cm, CZ | Median (9 cells) Best (front) Best (rear) | 712 716.8 711.8 | 40.80 40.57 33.06 | 82.23 84.52 82.77 | 23.91 24.58 19.48 | [120] |
| 244.32 | n-type, 0.5–1 Ω-cm, 180 μm, CZ | Best | 702.6 | 39.78 | 81.62 | 22.81 | [122] |
| 244.32 | n-type, 0.5–1 Ω-cm, 180 μm, CZ | Best | 683.4 | 39.53 | 81.86 | 22.14 | [123] |
| 239 | n-type, 2 Ω-cm, 180 μm, CZ | Best | 702 | 40.3 | 79.7 | 22.60 | [124] |
| 244.32 (M2) | n-type, 0.5–2 Ω-cm, 180 μm, CZ | Median Best | 687.1 689.4 | 39.92 40 | 81.09 81.35 | 22.25 22.43 | [43] |
| 242.77 ± 0.35 | n-type CZ | Best | 719.8 ± 3.6 | 41.59 ± 0.395 | 83.83 ± 0.92 | 25.09 ± 0.35 | [125] |
| 267.4 | n-type CZ | Best | - | - | - | 25.25 | [126] |
| 244.3 | n-type CZ | Average (20 cells) Best | 688 691 | 39.4 39.5 | 79.7 80 | 21.6 21.8 | [85] |
| 267.7 ± 1.1 | n-type CZ | Best | 714.6 ± 3.6 | 41.59 ± 0.411 | 83.43 ± 0.92 | 24.8 | [110] |
Table 10. Overview of oxidation technologies to form tunnel oxide layer. The symbols used are qualitative representation of: ‘√’ for favourable/possible with different degree, ‘×’ for not favourable/not-possible [127].
| Characteristics/Technology | Thermal | UV-O3 | Plasma | HNO3 | DI-O3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry or wet processing | Dry | Dry | Dry | Wet | Wet |
| In-situ growth with poly-silicon deposition | √ | × | √ | × | × |
| Thermal stability | √√√ | √√√ | √√√ | √ | √√ |
Table 11. Overview of available a-Si/poly-Si deposition technologies and qualitative comparison based upon available literature. The symbols used represent: ‘✓‘for favourable/possible with different degree, ‘×’ for not favourable/not-possible, and ‘–’ for work in progress/not yet demonstrated [127].
| Characteristics/Technology | LPCVD | PECVD | APCVD | PVD | Evaporation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Single-sided deposition | × | √ | √ | √√ | √√ |
| In-situ doping | √ | √√ | √√ | √ | - |
| Availability of industrial tool | √√√ | √√ | √√ | √√ | - |
| Process demonstrated in lab-size cells | √√√ | √√√ | √ | √√ | - |
| Application in large area industrial cell | √√√ | √√ | - | - | - |
| Deposition mode (Batch/Inline) | Batch | Both | Inline | Inline | Batch |
10. TOPCon solar cells based on multicrystalline silicon material
11. Hybrid/heterojunction silicon solar cells with TOPCon structure
12. Future scope of work with possible challenges
- A. Improvement of PCE and cost-effectiveness
- B. Development and light management of thin TOPCon solar cells
- C. Use of carrier selective contact layers as an alternative of doped poly-Si contacts
- D. Incorporating TOPCon structure into PERC solar cells
13. Conclusion
Declaration of Competing Interest
Acknowledgment
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